Last Updated January 31, 2024

 January 31, 2024

Looking for a detailed comparison regarding the effects of peptides vs. steroids according to the latest research?

Then look no further, as this comprehensive guide will discuss the evidence on the benefits, side effects, and safety of peptides versus anabolic steroids.

Our expert team will clearly outline the similarities and differences between research peptides and steroids in applications including:

  • Weight loss
  • Muscle building
  • Healing & recovery

Researchers also learn more about the legal statuses and potential risks of both classes of compounds. Based on our extensive experience, we’ll also share detailed information on the most trusted online vendors of peptides for research use.

Buy research peptides from our top-rated vendor...

Disclaimer: Peptides.org contains information about products that are intended for laboratory and research use only, unless otherwise explicitly stated. This information, including any referenced scientific or clinical research, is made available for educational purposes only. Likewise, any published information relative to the dosing and administration of reference materials is made available strictly for reference and shall not be construed to encourage the self-administration or any human use of said reference materials. Peptides.org makes every effort to ensure that any information it shares complies with national and international standards for clinical trial information and is committed to the timely disclosure of the design and results of all interventional clinical studies for innovative treatments publicly available or that may be made available. However, research is not considered conclusive. Peptides.org makes no claims that any products referenced can cure, treat or prevent any conditions, including any conditions referenced on its website or in print materials.


What are Peptides?

Research peptides are formed from amino acids chained together by peptide bonds. This leads to the formation of complex molecular structures with properties based on unique amino acid sequences.

Many have heard peptides being called the “building blocks of proteins.” Unlike proteins, peptides are much shorter and do not form complex three-dimensional structures. Instead, peptides generally consist of 2-50 amino acids, which are usually in a linear configuration [1].

Despite their simple structures, peptides are crucial in biological processes, acting as cell signal transmitters and overseeing functions like hormone production, appetite regulation, immune responses, tissue growth, and cellular motility [2].

Given their ability to target specific receptors and regulate biological functions, peptides have become a significant focus in the development of new drugs and therapies in medical research.

Currently, over 60 peptide-based medications are approved for human use and hundreds of research peptides are under active investigation [3, 4].


Peptides vs Steroids


What are Steroids?

Steroids are a broad class of organic compounds that have a structure composed of four fused carbon rings and various functional groups attached to them [5].

There are numerous naturally occurring steroids in the human body, including cholesterol, vitamins (vit. D), the stress hormone cortisol, and sex hormones such as testosterone and estrogen [5].

Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS), commonly termed just “steroids,” are human-made derivatives of the sex hormone testosterone (T) and other naturally occurring androgens (male hormones) [6].

They were initially developed for their medicinal uses, such as therapy for male hypogonadism (testosterone replacement therapy) and muscle wasting due to surgeries, infections, cancer, or other causes [6].

Many of these medications, such as testosterone esters (enanthate, cypionate, etc.), are still used to this day as prescription-only substances for therapy in men with low T. Others have been discontinued for various reasons or developed only for veterinary use [7].

All AAS possess powerful anabolic effects on muscle tissue coupled with catabolic effects on fat tissue. Anabolic steroids also activate the androgen receptors in various tissues such as skin, larynx, and reproductive organs, which has masculinizing effects.


Peptides vs. Steroids | Pros and Cons

Scientists may wonder how peptides compare to steroids in research settings, namely when investigating applications like muscle growth, weight loss, and recovery.

Anabolic steroids can dramatically improve physical performance, increase muscle mass, and burn body fat [6, 8, 9]. Yet, they are also linked to serious adverse reactions, which include short-term and long-term physical side effects.

In addition, some subjects may also experience psychological side effects like dependence even after short-term use of high AAS doses [10]. This is why anabolic steroids are classified by the United States government as Schedule III controlled substances that may be legally purchased or possessed only with a valid medical prescription [11].

Steroids are also banned for use by athletes and classified by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) as S1 substances. The S1 class refers to anabolic substances that are prohibited in and out of competition [12].

WADA has also banned many peptides, classified as either S0 (unapproved for human use) or S2 (peptide hormones and growth factors). However, peptides are not controlled substances and may be purchased by qualified researchers for experimental and educational purposes [12].

In summary, the main pros and cons of steroids include:

  • Pros: Potent muscle-building and fat-burning properties, especially when used at high doses; some steroids are approved for hormone replacement therapy [6, 7, 8, 9, 13].
  • Cons: Masculinizing effects; risk of serious or permanent side effects, especially at high doses [14].

On the other hand, the main pros and cons of peptides include:

  • Pros: A wide variety of benefits, including weight loss, anti-aging, recovery, healing, and increase in lean body mass; most peptides are well tolerated with no serious side effects [15, 16].
  • Cons: Many compounds are insufficiently tested in clinical trials and are yet to be approved for human use.

As evident, both peptides and steroids can have benefits related to muscle growth, weight loss, and other tissue-specific effects. However, they work via different mechanisms and may not have the same uses. Keep reading for a detailed comparison on the potential benefits of peptides vs. steroids for muscle building, fat loss, and recovery.

Steroids vs. Peptides | Weight Loss

Both peptides and anabolic steroids can lead to a significant reduction in total body mass.

In fact, anabolic steroids have been reported to stimulate weight loss in test subjects, particularly by increasing the energy demands of the human body.

For example, a study reports that testosterone enanthate at doses of 3mg/kg/week boosts average total testosterone levels up to about 1800ng/dl (around 3x baseline) and can result in about 10% increase in basal metabolic rate [9].

The increased metabolic rate is due to the increased muscle protein synthesis and higher lean body mass, associated with testosterone use.

Studies have also reported a significant reduction in body weight, BMI, and waist circumference in hypogonadal subjects receiving testosterone therapy [17].

On the other hand, some of the most effective peptides for weight loss research are the so-called incretin mimetics, which mimic naturally occurring incretin hormones like glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). Incretins play an important role in glucose homeostasis and appetite control [18].

Examples of extensively researched incretin mimetics for weight loss include:

One of the most potent incretin mimetics is tirzepatide, a novel dual GIP/GLP-1 agonist that is under active research as a weight loss medication [19].

According to research, the peptide works by suppressing appetite and causing continuous energy deficit, which ultimately leads to weight loss. One tirzepatide trial involving 117 diabetics reported a -309.8kcal reduction in energy intake compared to placebo during an unrestricted buffet-style meal following 26 weeks of administration [20].

Another trial that involved more than 2500 overweight and obese individuals reported an up to 20.9% body weight reduction after 72 weeks at tirzepatide 15mg/weekly. Based on the fact that the average baseline body weight of the test subjects receiving the maximum dose was about 233lb, this translates to a mean weight loss of over 45lb [15].

Other notable incretin mimetics are the peptides semaglutide and liraglutide. They are GLP-1 agonists that are already approved for several indications, including for chronic weight management in both adolescents (aged 12 or older) and adults [21].

Peptides vs. Steroids | Muscle Growth

Both peptides and steroids are also known for their muscle-building effects. Studies involving elderly men with normal serum testosterone (T) levels who were given physiological steroid doses (oxandrolone or testosterone esters) reveal that the subjects gained 3.3lb-13.2lb in lean mass over an average duration of three months [22].

Another study looked at healthy men who were given supraphysiological steroid doses (testosterone enanthate) for 10 weeks, either with or without exercise, reporting that the steroid led to lean muscle gains of 13.2lb and 6.8lb, respectively. Further examination revealed that the men taking steroids but not exercising gained more lean muscle than the control group men who were exercising but taking placebo [23].

Steroids such as testosterone enanthate have also been reported to maintain and even increase lean body mass in subjects on highly restrictive, low-calorie diets [24].

Researchers may also want to note that the effects of steroids may vary for different muscle groups, depending on the density of androgen receptors for the corresponding muscle. For example, the trapezius muscle has more androgen receptors and responds with more muscle growth than leg muscles to steroids [25].

Peptides have also been reported to stimulate an increase in lean body mass and muscle size, albeit to a much smaller degree [16]. Compounds with potential muscle building effects include:

For example, tesamorelin is a growth-hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) mimetic that works by stimulating natural growth hormone (GH) synthesis. Trials in HIV patietns have reported significant increases in muscle density and size [26]. Other GHRH analog peptides, such as sermorelin, have also been reported to increase lean mass in healthy individuals [16].

Another class of GH-stimulating peptides called ghrelin mimetics also may stimulate an increase in lean muscle mass. They mimic the function of the hunger hormone ghrelin, thereby stimulating GH release and increasing appetite.

For example, the GH secretagogue MK-677 (ibutamoren) significantly increased lean body mass without affecting fat mass in a two-month trial involving 24 obese males. It’s important to note that MK-677 per se has a modified non-peptide structure that makes it orally active, though it has a similar mechanism of action as peptide-compounds in the GHS class [27].

Steroids vs. Peptides | Recovery

Peptides and steroids may both promote healing and regeneration in humans, although they appear to work via vastly different mechanisms.

For example, testosterone cypionate has been researched in knee injury patients, and was shown to help the volunteers retain muscle mass and strength in the affected limb. Ultimately, administration resulted in faster rehabilitation and recovery of normal function [28]. Oxandrolone (Anavar) has been reported to speed up recovery in burn patients, although the steroid did not reduce overall mortality [29].

While steroids appear to influence recovery primarily due to their anti-catabolic effects on muscle tissue, peptides may directly affect cellular proliferation and motility. Examples of peptides for healing and recovery include:

For example, GH secretagogues like MK-677 increase both GH and its main anabolic mediator, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). IGF-1 is a well-known mitogenic agent that promotes cell proliferation. When administered alongside alendronate, MK-677 has been reported to increase bone cell turnover and mineral density, potentially speeding up bone healing [30].

Another peptide called TB-500 is a synthetic form of thymosin beta-4, a naturally-occurring protein found in almost all human and animal cells, where it is thought to regulate cellular motility [31]. TB-500 is often referred to as synthetic thymosin beta-4.

One trial in 73 patients with venous stasis ulcers given synthetic thymosin beta-4 for 84 days reported accelerated wound healing in the patients, with complete wound healing within 3 months in approximately 25% of the group. It was further reported to reduce the median time to healing by 45% among those whose wounds completely closed [32].


Are Peptides Actually Steroids?

Despite the similarities in some of the potential benefits of peptides and steroids, they have completely different mechanisms of action.

Anabolic steroids work on a broader scale, affecting a variety of tissues that possess androgen receptors [6].

This means they have far-reaching effects throughout the body. For instance, when anabolic steroids interact with androgen receptors in muscle tissue, they stimulate protein synthesis, thereby promoting muscle growth [6].

In fat tissue, steroids encourage lipolysis or the breakdown of fat. Additionally, their androgenic effects influence secondary male sexual characteristics like facial hair growth and a deepening of the voice [6, 7, 8].

Peptides, on the other hand, function in a multitude of ways, each depending on their particular sequence of amino acids. Some peptides stimulate the release of endogenous growth hormone, boosting muscle growth [16].

Others, like the incretin mimetic semaglutide, regulate blood sugar and appetite levels, with applications in diabetes and obesity management [21].

There are also peptides like TB-500 that work at a cellular level. TB-500 acts as an actin-binding protein that inhibits the polymerization of globular actin (G-actin) into filamentous actin (F-actin) and alters the cellular cytoskeleton [33, 34]. This affects the ability of cells to move and change shape, which is crucial for wound healing and tissue regeneration [35].

Overall, the actions of peptides are targeted, often involving specific cellular receptors or signaling pathways, and typically do not possess the broad androgenic effects seen with anabolic steroids. Thus, while both peptides and steroids can have beneficial effects, their mechanisms of action and overall effects are markedly different.

Buy research peptides from our top-rated vendor...


Are Peptides Safer Than Steroids?

When discussing the safety of peptides vs. steroids, it is crucial to understand that both classes of compounds have specific risks and side effects that can vary greatly based on numerous factors, such as dosage, duration of research, and the subjects' health status.

Peptides are generally considered to be safer than anabolic steroids due to their more targeted mechanisms of action and the lower likelihood of causing hormonal imbalances.

Anabolic steroids, given their broad effects, can trigger a series of side effects. These may range from relatively minor issues like acne, oily skin, and hair loss to more serious concerns such as [36]:

  • Gynecomastia (aromatizable/non-5α-reduced AAS) [37]
  • Liver damage (oral AAS) [38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44]
  • Cardiovascular complications (due to unfavorable effects on cholesterol levels, especially with AAS such as trenbolone) [45]
  • Psychological changes [10]
  • Disruption in the body's natural production of hormones, leading to infertility [46]

For example, oral AAS that have been reported to induce serious and even life-threatening liver injury include Winstrol (stanozolol, Stromba), Superdrol (methasterone), Dianabol (methandienone), Metandren (methyltestosterone), and others [38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44].

The androgenic effects of steroids may also lead to masculinization in female test subjects, which can include facial hair growth and voice deepening. Long-term use can lead to psychological dependence with withdrawal symptoms upon cessation [10].

On the other hand, peptides are linked to varying side effects depending on their structure and functions. For example, incretin mimetics such as GLP-1 agonists are known to cause gastrointestinal disturbances like nausea and diarrhea. Rarely, they may also lead to hepatobiliary disorders such as cholelithiasis and pancreatitis, which tend to be mild to moderate in severity [47].

Further, GHRH-agonists such as tesamorelin may lead to complaints related to water retention, such as joint pain, limb edemas, and puffiness, due to their GH-boosting effects [48].

Some peptides, such as TB-500, are yet to be thoroughly tested and approved for human use. Yet, the limited clinical data reveals that these peptides do not cause any serious side effects and do not possess dose-limiting toxicity [49].

Side effects such as allergic reactions and irritation at the injection site can occur with both steroids and peptides.


Peptides vs Steroids


Where to Buy Peptides Online? | 2024 Edition

It is legal for qualified researchers to acquire peptides without a prescription for scientific purposes. Yet, it's crucial to tread carefully and avoid procuring subpar peptides, which could be harmful or inefficient for research-related use.

To secure superior peptides for research studies, it's advisable to rely on dependable sources like our most trusted online vendors:

Limitless Life

Their extensive quality control processes, paired with quick shipping, easy returns, and commitment to safety, make them the best option for any researcher. Here’s more about why we like Limitless Life:

  • Stringent Quality Standards: Limitless Life takes product quality extremely seriously, partnering with three different labs to offer independent quality testing on each and every batch of product they produce. The end result is a quality rating of over 99% on most of their research peptides.
  • Fast and Flexible Shipping: Limitless Life provides a variety of FedEx shipping options for domestic customers, including same-day, overnight, and 2-day speeds—along with an order processing time of less than 48 hours. International shipping is fast and reliable, also.
  • Generous Return Policy: They also offer a generous return policy to ensure that researchers are fully satisfied with each purchase they make.
  • Responsible Distribution of Peptides: Limitless Life is committed to safety, and therefore provides products that are meant only for research purposes—never for individual or personal use. 

Last, but not least…

Researchers can save 10% on their next order by simply clicking the button below and using code:

peptidesorg10

Buy research peptides from MOB Peptides, a top-rated vendor...


Steroids and Peptides | FAQ

Below, we cover some of the most common questions posed by researchers who are interested in comparing the effects of peptides vs. steroids.

Are peptides better than steroids?

Peptides and steroids have vastly different applications. Some anabolic steroids are used for hormone-replacement therapy in subjects with male hypogonadism (low T). On the other hand, peptides may be used for benefits like weight loss, recovery, anti-aging, reproductive health, and nootropic research. Therefore, whether peptides or steroids are better depends primarily on the research objective.

Are steroids and peptides the same?

Not at all. Steroids are fat-soluble molecules made of four fused carbon rings. Anabolic steroids interact with the so-called androgenic receptors in various tissues to exert their effects. On the other hand, peptides are short chains of 2-50 amino acids that can exert a wide variety of effects on the body. Different peptides will interact with different receptors, regulate enzyme activity, modulate cell signaling, and more.

Do peptides build muscle?

Yes. Some peptides that upregulate the production of growth hormone (GH) by the pituitary, such as sermorelin (GRF 1-29), tesamorelin, and CJC-1295, can also lead to increased levels of GH's main anabolic mediator, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). IGF-1 has anabolic effects on muscle tissue and can upregulate lean body mass. In addition, ghrelin mimetics can increase GH/IGF-1 levels and increase appetite, which can further help build muscle in test subjects [27].

Do bodybuilders use peptides?

Bodybuilders and athletes often use peptides as performance-enhancing drugs to stimulate recovery, build muscle, and/or increase fat loss. However, it is important to note that WADA bans most peptides, and using them in or out of competition is strictly prohibited. Moreover, many peptides are research compounds, and should be clearly labeled accordingly.


Steroids vs. Peptides | Verdict

Both steroids and peptides have been shown to exert benefits such as weight loss, increased muscle mass, and faster recovery in both clinical and research settings. However, these benefits are mediated via vastly different mechanisms.

Moreover, researchers should consider the different legal statuses and potential side effects of either group of compounds. Steroids are generally controlled substances that are tightly regulated by government agencies.

On the other hand, research peptides are available for purchase by qualified professionals for educational and experimental purposes.

For researcher looking for a reliable source of high-quality peptides, we highly recommend Limitless Life as our most trusted online vendor.


References

  1. Forbes J, Krishnamurthy K. Biochemistry, Peptide. [Updated 2022 Aug 29]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562260/
  2. Martínez-Villaluenga, C., & Hernández-Ledesma, B. (2022). Peptides for Health Benefits 2020. International journal of molecular sciences, 23(12), 6699. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23126699
  3. Lee, A. C., Harris, J. L., Khanna, K. K., & Hong, J. H. (2019). A Comprehensive Review on Current Advances in Peptide Drug Development and Design. International journal of molecular sciences, 20(10), 2383. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20102383
  4. Wang, L., Wang, N., Zhang, W., Cheng, X., Yan, Z., Shao, G., Wang, X., Wang, R., & Fu, C. (2022). Therapeutic peptides: current applications and future directions. Signal transduction and targeted therapy, 7(1), 48. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-022-00904-4
  5. Miller, W. L., & Auchus, R. J. (2011). The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders. Endocrine reviews, 32(1), 81–151. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2010-0013
  6. Ganesan K, Rahman S, Zito PM. Anabolic Steroids. [Updated 2023 May 23]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482418/
  7. Kicman A. T. (2008). Pharmacology of anabolic steroids. British journal of pharmacology, 154(3), 502–521. https://doi.org/10.1038/bjp.2008.165
  8. Bianchi, V. E., & Locatelli, V. (2018). Testosterone a key factor in gender related metabolic syndrome. Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 19(4), 557–575. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12633
  9. Welle, S., Jozefowicz, R., Forbes, G., & Griggs, R. C. (1992). Effect of testosterone on metabolic rate and body composition in normal men and men with muscular dystrophy. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism, 74(2), 332–335. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.74.2.1730811
  10. Yates, W. R., Perry, P. J., MacIndoe, J., Holman, T., & Ellingrod, V. (1999). Psychosexual effects of three doses of testosterone cycling in normal men. Biological psychiatry, 45(3), 254-260.
  11. Lopez MJ, Tadi P. Drug Enforcement Administration Drug Scheduling. [Updated 2022 Jun 23]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557426/
  12. World Anti-Doping Agency. World Anti-Doping Code International Standard Prohibited List 2022. WADA website. January 1, 2022. Accessed June 2023. https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/2022list_final_en.pdf
  13. Yassin, A., & Doros, G. (2013). Testosterone therapy in hypogonadal men results in sustained and clinically meaningful weight loss. Clinical obesity, 3(3-4), 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/cob.1202
  14. Elraiyah, T., Sonbol, M. B., Wang, Z., Khairalseed, T., Asi, N., Undavalli, C., Nabhan, M., Firwana, B., Altayar, O., Prokop, L., Montori, V. M., & Murad, M. H. (2014). Clinical review: The benefits and harms of systemic testosterone therapy in postmenopausal women with normal adrenal function: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism, 99(10), 3543–3550. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2014-2262
  15. Jastreboff, A. M., Aronne, L. J., Ahmad, N. N., Wharton, S., Connery, L., Alves, B., Kiyosue, A., Zhang, S., Liu, B., Bunck, M. C., Stefanski, A., & SURMOUNT-1 Investigators (2022). Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity. The New England journal of medicine, 387(3), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2206038
  16. Sinha, D. K., Balasubramanian, A., Tatem, A. J., Rivera-Mirabal, J., Yu, J., Kovac, J., Pastuszak, A. W., & Lipshultz, L. I. (2020). Beyond the androgen receptor: the role of growth hormone secretagogues in the modern management of body composition in hypogonadal males. Translational andrology and urology, 9(Suppl 2), S149–S159. https://doi.org/10.21037/tau.2019.11.30
  17. Kalinchenko, S. Y., Tishova, Y. A., Mskhalaya, G. J., Gooren, L. J., Giltay, E. J., & Saad, F. (2010). Effects of testosterone supplementation on markers of the metabolic syndrome and inflammation in hypogonadal men with the metabolic syndrome: the double-blinded placebo-controlled Moscow study. Clinical endocrinology, 73(5), 602–612. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2265.2010.03845.x
  18. Seino, Y., Fukushima, M., & Yabe, D. (2010). GIP and GLP-1, the two incretin hormones: Similarities and differences. Journal of diabetes investigation, 1(1-2), 8–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2040-1124.2010.00022.x
  19. Chavda, V. P., Ajabiya, J., Teli, D., Bojarska, J., & Apostolopoulos, V. (2022). Tirzepatide, a New Era of Dual-Targeted Treatment for Diabetes and Obesity: A Mini-Review. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 27(13), 4315. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27134315
  20. Heise, T., DeVries, J. H., Urva, S., Li, J., Pratt, E. J., Thomas, M. K., Mather, K. J., Karanikas, C. A., Dunn, J., Haupt, A., Milicevic, Z., & Coskun, T. (2023). Tirzepatide Reduces Appetite, Energy Intake, and Fat Mass in People With Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes care, 46(5), 998–1004. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc22-1710
  21. Berman, C., Vidmar, A. P., & Chao, L. C. (2023). Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists for the Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes in Youth. TouchREVIEWS in endocrinology, 19(1), 38–45. https://doi.org/10.17925/EE.2023.19.1.38
  22. Neto, W. K., Gama, E. F., Rocha, L. Y., Ramos, C. C., Taets, W., Scapini, K. B., Ferreira, J. B., Rodrigues, B., & Caperuto, É. (2015). Effects of testosterone on lean mass gain in elderly men: systematic review with meta-analysis of controlled and randomized studies. Age (Dordrecht, Netherlands), 37(1), 9742. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-014-9742-0
  23. Bhasin, S., Storer, T. W., Berman, N., Callegari, C., Clevenger, B., Phillips, J., … & Casaburi, R. (1996). The effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on muscle size and strength in normal men. New England Journal of Medicine, 335(1), 1-7.
  24. Pasiakos, S. M., Berryman, C. E., Karl, J. P., Lieberman, H. R., Orr, J. S., Margolis, L. M., Caldwell, J. A., Young, A. J., Montano, M. A., Evans, W. J., Vartanian, O., Carmichael, O. T., Gadde, K. M., Johannsen, N. M., Beyl, R. A., Harris, M. N., & Rood, J. C. (2019). Effects of testosterone supplementation on body composition and lower-body muscle function during severe exercise- and diet-induced energy deficit: A proof-of-concept, single centre, randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. EBioMedicine, 46, 411–422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2019.07.059
  25. Kadi, F., Bonnerud, P., Eriksson, A., & Thornell, L. E. (2000). The expression of androgen receptors in human neck and limb muscles: effects of training and self-administration of androgenic-anabolic steroids. Histochemistry and cell biology, 113(1), 25–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004180050003
  26. Adrian, S., Scherzinger, A., Sanyal, A., Lake, J. E., Falutz, J., Dubé, M. P., … & Erlandson, K. M. (2019). The growth hormone releasing hormone analogue, tesamorelin, decreases muscle fat and increases muscle area in adults with HIV. The Journal of frailty & aging, 8, 154-159.
  27. Svensson, J., Lönn, L., Jansson, J. O., Murphy, G., Wyss, D., Krupa, D., Cerchio, K., Polvino, W., Gertz, B., Boseaus, I., Sjöström, L., & Bengtsson, B. A. (1998). Two-month treatment of obese subjects with the oral growth hormone (GH) secretagogue MK-677 increases GH secretion, fat-free mass, and energy expenditure. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism, 83(2), 362–369. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.83.2.4539
  28. Wu, B., Lorezanza, D., Badash, I., Berger, M., Lane, C., Sum, J. C., Hatch, G. F., 3rd, & Schroeder, E. T. (2017). Perioperative Testosterone Supplementation Increases Lean Mass in Healthy Men Undergoing Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Orthopaedic journal of sports medicine, 5(8), 2325967117722794. https://doi.org/10.1177/2325967117722794
  29. Ring, J., Heinelt, M., Sharma, S., Letourneau, S., & Jeschke, M. G. (2020). Oxandrolone in the Treatment of Burn Injuries: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Journal of burn care & research : official publication of the American Burn Association, 41(1), 190–199. https://doi.org/10.1093/jbcr/irz155
  30. Murphy, M. G., Weiss, S., McClung, M., Schnitzer, T., Cerchio, K., Connor, J., Krupa, D., Gertz, B. J., & MK-677/Alendronate Study Group (2001). Effect of alendronate and MK-677 (a growth hormone secretagogue), individually and in combination, on markers of bone turnover and bone mineral density in postmenopausal osteoporotic women. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism, 86(3), 1116–1125. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.86.3.7294
  31. Goldstein, A. L., Hannappel, E., Sosne, G., & Kleinman, H. K. (2012). Thymosin β4: a multi-functional regenerative peptide. Basic properties and clinical applications. Expert opinion on biological therapy, 12(1), 37–51. https://doi.org/10.1517/14712598.2012.634793
  32. Guarnera, G., DeRosa, A., Camerini, R., & 8 European sites (2010). The effect of thymosin treatment of venous ulcers. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1194, 207–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05490.x
  33. Sanders, M. C., Goldstein, A. L., & Wang, Y. L. (1992). Thymosin beta 4 (Fx peptide) is a potent regulator of actin polymerization in living cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 89(10), 4678–4682. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.89.10.4678
  34. Irobi, E., Aguda, A. H., Larsson, M., Guerin, C., Yin, H. L., Burtnick, L. D., Blanchoin, L., & Robinson, R. C. (2004). Structural basis of actin sequestration by thymosin-beta4: implications for WH2 proteins. The EMBO journal, 23(18), 3599–3608. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.emboj.7600372
  35. Yadav, T., Gau, D., & Roy, P. (2022). Mitochondria-actin cytoskeleton crosstalk in cell migration. Journal of cellular physiology, 237(5), 2387–2403. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.30729
  36. Elraiyah, T., Sonbol, M. B., Wang, Z., Khairalseed, T., Asi, N., Undavalli, C., Nabhan, M., Firwana, B., Altayar, O., Prokop, L., Montori, V. M., & Murad, M. H. (2014). Clinical review: The benefits and harms of systemic testosterone therapy in postmenopausal women with normal adrenal function: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism, 99(10), 3543–3550. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2014-2262
  37. LARON, Z. (1962). Breast development induced by methandrostenolone (Dianabol). The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 22(4), 450-452.
  38. Gorayski, P., Thompson, C. H., Subhash, H. S., & Thomas, A. C. (2008). Hepatocellular carcinoma associated with recreational anabolic steroid use. British journal of sports medicine, 42(1), 74–75. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2007.03932
  39. Nasr, J., & Ahmad, J. (2009). Severe cholestasis and renal failure associated with the use of the designer steroid superdrol™(Methasteron™): a case report and literature review. Digestive diseases and sciences, 54, 1144-1146.
  40. Jasiurkowski, B., Raj, J., Wisinger, D., Carlson, R., Zou, L., & Nadir, A. (2006). Cholestatic jaundice and IgA nephropathy induced by OTC muscle building agent superdrol. The American journal of gastroenterology, 101(11), 2659–2662. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1572-0241.2006.00735.x
  41. Singh, V., Rudraraju, M., Carey, E. J., Byrne, T. J., Vargas, H. E., Williams, J. E., Balan, V., Douglas, D. D., & Rakela, J. (2009). Severe hepatotoxicity caused by a methasteron-containing performance-enhancing supplement. Journal of clinical gastroenterology, 43(3), 287. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCG.0b013e31815a5796
  42. Shah, N. L., Zacharias, I., Khettry, U., Afdhal, N., & Gordon, F. D. (2008). Methasteron-associated cholestatic liver injury: clinicopathologic findings in 5 cases. Clinical gastroenterology and hepatology : the official clinical practice journal of the American Gastroenterological Association, 6(2), 255–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cgh.2007.11.010
  43. WILDER E. M. (1962). Death due to liver failure following the use of methandrostenolone. Canadian Medical Association journal, 87(14), 768–769.
  44. deLORIMIER, A. A., GORDAN, G. S., LOWE, R. C., & CARBONE, J. V. (1965). Methyltestosterone, related steroids, and liver function. Archives of internal medicine, 116(2), 289-294.
  45. Payne, J. R., Kotwinski, P. J., & Montgomery, H. E. (2004). Cardiac effects of anabolic steroids. Heart (British Cardiac Society), 90(5), 473–475. https://doi.org/10.1136/hrt.2003.025783
  46. El Osta, R., Almont, T., Diligent, C., Hubert, N., Eschwège, P., & Hubert, J. (2016). Anabolic steroids abuse and male infertility. Basic and clinical andrology, 26, 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12610-016-0029-4
  47. Gorgojo-Martínez, J. J., Mezquita-Raya, P., Carretero-Gómez, J., Castro, A., Cebrián-Cuenca, A., de Torres-Sánchez, A., García-de-Lucas, M. D., Núñez, J., Obaya, J. C., Soler, M. J., Górriz, J. L., & Rubio-Herrera, M. Á. (2022). Clinical Recommendations to Manage Gastrointestinal Adverse Events in Patients Treated with Glp-1 Receptor Agonists: A Multidisciplinary Expert Consensus. Journal of clinical medicine, 12(1), 145. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12010145
  48. Clinical Review Report: Tesamorelin (Egrifta) [Internet]. Ottawa (ON): Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health; 2016 Aug. 4, Discussion. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539136/
  49. Ruff, D., Crockford, D., Girardi, G., & Zhang, Y. (2010). A randomized, placebo-controlled, single and multiple dose study of intravenous thymosin beta4 in healthy volunteers. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1194, 223–229. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05474.x

Scientifically Fact Checked by:

David Warmflash, M.D.

Table of Contents
    Add a header to begin generating the table of contents